寫 作 （一）評(píng)價(jià)目標(biāo) 考生應(yīng)具有用書面英語表達(dá)思想的基本能力。所寫文字要切合主題，意義連貫，標(biāo)點(diǎn)正 確，無重大語言錯(cuò)誤。每小時(shí)寫出250～300個(gè)詞的短文。 （二）題型、題量、分值 本部分設(shè)1題，15～20分，考試時(shí)間為25～35分鐘，要求考生在規(guī)定的時(shí)間內(nèi)，按照 本題說明中的要求寫出一篇約120～150個(gè)詞的短文，形式可按所給提綱進(jìn)行寫作，或看圖 作文、描述圖表、寫內(nèi)容提要等。 （三）試題命題特點(diǎn)及評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn) 考試作文的形式可以是提綱進(jìn)行寫作、看圖作文、描述圖表、寫內(nèi)容提要等。但通過對(duì) 近年來考試試題的總結(jié)發(fā)現(xiàn)，最常見的是議論文。寫作評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)主要圍繞四個(gè)方面評(píng)判：1. 內(nèi)容要切題；2. 能正確表達(dá)思想；3. 意義連貫；4. 無重大語法錯(cuò)誤�？偟膩碚f主要從內(nèi) 容和語言兩個(gè)方面進(jìn)行綜合評(píng)判。 （四）應(yīng)對(duì)策略 1．先寫作文。寫一篇好的作文的一個(gè)先決條件就是心平氣和、頭腦清晰。但作文通常 是試卷的最后一部分。許多人特別是做題速度慢的考生，通常沒有足夠的時(shí)間寫作文，在這 種條件下，多數(shù)考生不免心慌意亂、思緒混亂。試想在這樣的心理?xiàng)l件下能寫出好作文嗎？ 事實(shí)也證明，相當(dāng)一部分低劣的作文就是這種狀況下寫出來的。 這種情況的應(yīng)對(duì)措施除了平時(shí)多加訓(xùn)練提高做題速度外，在考試過程中可以提前作文。例如 可以將客觀題（特別是單選題）靠后些做，這些題對(duì)心理素質(zhì)要求相對(duì)較低。并且，在時(shí)間 不足的情況下，可以隨便填上答案，如果運(yùn)氣好，還可以碰對(duì)幾分，從而減少時(shí)間不足帶來 的損失。 2．注意審題�？吹阶魑念}目后，首先一步也是非常重要的一步就是審題。通過審題就 可以了解作文應(yīng)該寫什么內(nèi)容，中心是什么。如果這一環(huán)節(jié)失誤，下筆千言，離題萬里，不 論你的論點(diǎn)多么明確，論證多么有力，語言多么優(yōu)美，都不可能拿高分。 3．可寫提綱。在下筆之前，最好就這篇作文有個(gè)大致的思路，并把思路以提綱的形式 寫出來。這樣就可以保證文章條理清晰，結(jié)構(gòu)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)，同時(shí)可以避免寫作過程中重要內(nèi)容的遺 漏。當(dāng)然有時(shí)所給作文已列出提綱，自己可以在所提供提綱上稍作擴(kuò)張。 4．寫作模式。寫作模式可以千差萬別，但就在職人員申請(qǐng)碩士學(xué)位考試來說，最常用 也最容易拿分的模式就數(shù)“三段論”了。即在文章第一段旗幟鮮明地提出自己的觀點(diǎn)，第二 段加以論述，最后一段在做一總結(jié)。這種模式雖略顯老套，但卻易學(xué)易用。很容易做到觀點(diǎn) 清晰，條理清楚，所以語言上再無什么問題，拿中等以上的分?jǐn)?shù)應(yīng)該是比較輕松的。 5．過渡詞句。在寫文章過程中，應(yīng)注意上下段，上下文的連接。如果適當(dāng)運(yùn)用過渡詞 和句型，就可以使文章顯的自然流暢，文章的整體也比較連貫。如，表示開題的詞：to begin with, first of all, Nowadays…；表示因果的詞：because, as, owing to, therefore…; 表示舉例的短語：for an instance, for example, … is a case in point…。 6．夠長即可。文章寫的不必太長，除非你確有把握。因?yàn)閷懙脑介L，出錯(cuò)的機(jī)率也會(huì) 越大，所謂費(fèi)力不討好。 7．平時(shí)練習(xí)。寫作能力的培養(yǎng)，重在平時(shí)，所以平常應(yīng)多練習(xí)�？梢宰瞿�擬題，熟悉 寫作技巧和作文模式。另外，如果養(yǎng)成天天寫日記的習(xí)慣更好，這樣更有利于培養(yǎng)英語的思 維能力和表達(dá)能力。總之寫作能力上去了，才能真正以不變應(yīng)萬變。 8．背誦范文。如果考試已經(jīng)迫在眉睫，臨時(shí)背一些經(jīng)典的范文，也是應(yīng)對(duì)考試的一種 方法。不過這種方法有很大的投機(jī)性和冒險(xiǎn)性。一句話，重在平時(shí)能力培養(yǎng) ------------------------------------------------------------- 根據(jù)《在職人員以研究生畢業(yè)同等學(xué)力申請(qǐng)碩士學(xué)位外國語課程水平統(tǒng)一考試大綱》的規(guī)定，要求考生具備一定的寫作能力，在30分鐘內(nèi)按要求寫出一篇100～120詞的短文，形式可以是按所給的提綱寫短文，或描述圖表，寫內(nèi)容提要、概述等。本題15分。

一、評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)

寫作評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)主要圍繞四個(gè)方面評(píng)判：1.內(nèi)容要切題；2.能正確表達(dá)思想；3.意義連貫；4.無重大語法錯(cuò)誤。批改作文時(shí)，主要從內(nèi)容和語言兩個(gè)方面進(jìn)行綜合評(píng)判。內(nèi)容和語言是一個(gè)統(tǒng)一體。作文應(yīng)表達(dá)題目所規(guī)定的內(nèi)容，而內(nèi)容要通過語言來表達(dá)。作文是否切題，是否充分表達(dá)思想，和語言上的錯(cuò)誤是否造成理解上的障礙有密切的關(guān)系。下面就評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的四個(gè)方面分別加以說明。

(一)內(nèi)容切題


在目前常見的作文題目中，內(nèi)容切題一般包括兩個(gè)方面。一是寫作內(nèi)容要圍繞題目規(guī)定的話題展開。比如“A Five�瞕ay Week”(五天工作制)，文章的內(nèi)容應(yīng)圍繞五天工作制進(jìn)行論述，與其無關(guān)的內(nèi)容，當(dāng)以跑題論處，但此種現(xiàn)象并不多見。其二，在有些作文題中還包括提綱如：


Fire Accidents in Big Cities
Outline：1.Present Situation
2.Causes
3.Measures


這種帶提綱的作文題目不僅要求考生根據(jù)標(biāo)題寫作，而且要根據(jù)提綱規(guī)定的內(nèi)容和范圍展開各個(gè)段落，不能按自己的思路發(fā)揮。考生在這方面出的問題比較多。如1994年考研作文題是：On Making Friends(論交友)，其三段的提綱分別是：1.The need for friends 2.True Friendship 3.My principle in making friends。第三段的提綱要求考生圍繞我交友的原則進(jìn)行議論，然而有個(gè)別考生在段中這樣寫道：


The former paragraph has shown my principle in making friends in some way.Furthermore,what I want to say is that one good friend is enough.


該考生把應(yīng)放在第三段中論述的內(nèi)容寫在第二段中，第三段就沒內(nèi)容可寫了。這類命題作文要求考生按規(guī)定和要求寫作，不能按自己的想法隨意更改，寫上段作文的考生不僅第三段沒有扣題，第二段也沒有做到內(nèi)容切題。一篇內(nèi)容切題的作文應(yīng)能既圍繞題目，又能在各段扣準(zhǔn)提綱，才真正符合內(nèi)容切題的要求。下面這一段是另一學(xué)生的作文，都是第三段，內(nèi)容切題，恰當(dāng)?shù)乜圩×恕拔医挥训脑瓌t”的寫作要求：


When I choose friends,I do not care what work they do or what social background they are from,but I do notice those little things which reveal one′s characters.I would make sure that we really care for each other,so that no matter how much time goes by without seeing each other,I know my friends will always be there,ready to help if I need them,And I know we are true friends indeed.

(二)能正確地表達(dá)思想


一篇好短文能使讀者一目了然。文章的思路應(yīng)清楚，邏輯性強(qiáng)，能準(zhǔn)確表達(dá)作者的思想。請(qǐng)對(duì)比下面兩段：


Have you a bike?Taking a bike is a good way,most people think.But in university it seems not as good as other places.Bikes are possible to be stolen now and then.Having a bike isn′t always good enough for us to buy one.


上段作者的思路紊亂不清，字里行間不僅有許多語病，而且也沒能把思想表達(dá)清楚。讀后仍不知作者在表達(dá)什么思想、觀點(diǎn)，因而這樣的段落只能得0分。請(qǐng)看下段：


It is very convenient to use bikes in China.Bikes don′need fuel,nor a garage or a large parking lot.Bikes can go through narrow streets and their prices are low.So bikes are the most popular vehicles in China today.


上段的作者以其簡單的詞匯、簡潔的語言、清楚的思路正確地表達(dá)了思想，使讀者觀后能即刻領(lǐng)會(huì)作者的思想。


要能正確地表達(dá)思想，考生還應(yīng)掌握一些寫作技巧，如寫好段落主題句，展開段落的方法，寫好段尾句等。此外還應(yīng)掌握一定的詞匯量和習(xí)慣表達(dá)法。

(三)意義連貫


文章的層次要分明，條理要清楚，上下文之間、詞與詞、句與句之間要上下連貫，前后呼應(yīng)，才能使文章結(jié)構(gòu)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)，思路清晰、有條理。


下面這個(gè)段落是一篇文章的第三段。文章的標(biāo)題是：Good Health；提綱是1.Importance of good health；2.Ways to keep fit；3.My own practice。根據(jù)第三段的提綱“我的做法”，一個(gè)考生這樣寫：


I don′t eat meat much.Every morning I take the long run and in my spare time I like playing tennis and volleyball.In this way I keep good health and lead a happy life.
上段基本切題，包括提綱要點(diǎn)，表達(dá)也基本清楚，但是表達(dá)不夠連貫。第一句話讓人讀起來感覺有些突然，分析第一句，作者沒有把意思表達(dá)清楚，作者的“我吃肉不多”一定含有這樣的意思：我飲食素淡，吃蔬菜水果多，吃肉少。如果能把這層意思寫出來，文章的連貫性也就體現(xiàn)出來了。作者的第二句是從體育鍛煉方面來表明自己是如何保持健康的，這應(yīng)是本段中的又一層意思，在這里如能加一個(gè)過渡詞，會(huì)使文章過渡自然流暢。請(qǐng)看下面經(jīng)過修改的段落：


As for me(1),I enjoy a good health as I keep a simple diet with more vegetables,fruit and less meat.Moreover,I do some exercises whenever I have time such as long distance running,playing tennis or volleyball.As a result(2),I have been a top student all through the four years in the university.So good health is important to everyone(3).


(1)發(fā)揮了承上啟下的作用，沒有這樣一個(gè)介詞短語，從第二段過渡到第三段就會(huì)顯得生硬一些。(2)也起到了連貫作用，在上述兩方面保持健康的方法介紹完后，應(yīng)該進(jìn)一步寫出所產(chǎn)生的結(jié)果，這結(jié)果就是對(duì)全段的總結(jié)概括。(3)對(duì)文章的標(biāo)題及開頭起了首尾呼應(yīng)的作用。

(四)無重大語法錯(cuò)誤


重大語法錯(cuò)誤一般指時(shí)態(tài)不一致、主語謂語單復(fù)數(shù)形式不一致、用詞不當(dāng)?shù)�，這些問題的存在說明考生在平時(shí)的英語學(xué)習(xí)中很少練習(xí)寫作，有人甚至從沒寫過作文，因而出現(xiàn)各種各樣語法錯(cuò)誤是可以理解的�？忌鷳�(yīng)在考前多進(jìn)行這方面的訓(xùn)練，一些語法錯(cuò)誤在實(shí)踐中是可以糾正過來的。下面舉幾例常見錯(cuò)誤。


病句及其分析：


1.So colleg e provid e the best condition for students.


此句的主謂語不一致。因?yàn)榫渥拥囊馑际欠褐复髮W(xué)為學(xué)生提供了最好的學(xué)習(xí)環(huán)境，這里的主語college應(yīng)變?yōu)閺?fù)數(shù)。這類錯(cuò)誤極為常見。


2.Going to college does not followed that We′ll have a splendid future.


此句的主語是現(xiàn)在分詞短語，全句的意思是：上大學(xué)并不表示我們的未來就一定會(huì)光輝燦爛。does not后應(yīng)跟動(dòng)詞原型follow。


3.Second,have a part time job for poor student is a good way to help reduce his family burden.


此句中有兩處錯(cuò)誤。have a part time job不能直接作主語，可以改為不定式作主語to have a part time job,或者動(dòng)名詞作主語having a part time job。第二處錯(cuò)誤是poor student。普通名詞前應(yīng)有冠詞a或the,如前面沒有冠詞，名詞應(yīng)是復(fù)數(shù)形式。在這里可選用不定冠詞，a poor student,或者poor students。在此句中為了與后半句中的his呼應(yīng)將其改為a poor student為好。


4.In recent years,fake goods have been discovered more and more in the market.


第四句是中文式的英文，這是考生作文中的常見錯(cuò)誤。按照英語的習(xí)慣可改為More and more fake goods have been discovered in the market in recent years.


5.The first hand I think is that law must be passed to prevent fake goods from being produced.


第五句中的The first hand是錯(cuò)的，應(yīng)改為On the one hand；I think是插入成分，在寫作中應(yīng)盡量不使用這樣的插入成分；law 前應(yīng)有冠詞，此句經(jīng)修改后是：On the one hand,a law must be passed to prevent fake goods from being produced.

二、寫作技巧

一篇好的短文應(yīng)該觀點(diǎn)明確，思路清晰，論述有力、準(zhǔn)確，語言正確，文字簡潔、流暢、連貫，結(jié)構(gòu)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)。短文是由段落組成，因此寫好段落是寫好短文的關(guān)鍵。


段落的組成分為三部分，主題句(Topic Sentence),推展句(Development Sentences)和結(jié)論句(Concluding Sentence)。下面分別就這三方面進(jìn)行詳解。

(一)主題句


1.主題句的作用
主題句是全段的核心句，讀者通過主題句能了解段落的中心思想。一個(gè)好的主題句還能限制話題所談?wù)摰姆秶�，表明段落展開的方向及方法。在英語文章中，圍繞主題句展開的段落很多。下面兩段摘自1995年的閱讀試題。


A job applicant has the responsibility for ascertaining certain types of information prior to the interview. First,the applicant should know what kind of job he wants and how that job relates to his career objective.It is important that the applicant be able to state his reasons for wishing to work for a particular company.Second,the applicant should seek as much information as possible concerning the company.Relevant information for the applicant to locate includes such items as the location of the home and regional offices,the financial status of the company,plans for expansion,and company philosophy.Information about most major corporations is available in reference books and periodicals.


上段第一句是段落的主題句，句子的大意是：申請(qǐng)工作的人在接受面試前有責(zé)任了解某些方面的信息。主題句中的關(guān)鍵詞是ascertaining certain types of information。緊接著，文章圍繞主題句從兩方面展開，論述了申請(qǐng)人應(yīng)了解兩類信息。


If Europeans thought a drought was something that happened only in Africa,they know better now. After four years of below�瞡ormal rainfall (in some cases only 10 percent of the annual average), vast areas of France,Spain,Portugal,Belgium,Britain and Ireland are dry and barren .Water is so low in the canals of northern France that waterway traffic is forbidden except on weekends.Oyster growers in Britain report a 30 percent drop in production because of the loss of fresh water in local rivers necessary for oyster breeding.In southeastern England,the rolling green hills of Kent have turned so brown that officials have been weighing plans to pipe in water from wales.In Portugal,farmers in the southern Alentejo region have held prayer meetings for rain—so far,in vain.


上段中第二句是主題句，它點(diǎn)明了全段的中心思想，即：四年來，法國、西班牙、葡萄牙、比利時(shí)，英國及愛爾蘭的降雨量低于常年，這些國家的廣大地區(qū)都嚴(yán)重缺水。下面的各句都是圍繞這一主題展開的。


從上面兩段中我們可以看到英語的段落只能有一個(gè)中心思想，如要再論述其他與該段中心思想無關(guān)的內(nèi)容應(yīng)另起一段。


2.主題句的位置


主題句的位置可以在段首：


London′s weather is very strange .It can rain several times a day;each time the rain may come suddenly after the sun is shining brightly.The air is damp(潮濕的)and chill(冷的)right through July.On one March afternoon on Hampton Heath last year it rained three times,there was one hail(冰雹)storm,and the sun shone brilliantly—all this within two hours′s time.It is not unusual to see men and women rushing down the street on a sunny morning with umbrellas on their arms.No one knows what the next few moments will bring.


主題句的位置可以在段落中間：


Just as I settle down to read or watch television,he demands that I play with him.If I get a telephone call,he screams in the background or knocks something over.I always have to hang up to find out what′s wrong with him, Baby�瞫itting with my little brother is no fun. He refuses to let me eat a snack(快餐)in peace.Usually he wants half of whatever I have to eat.Then,when he finally grows tired,it takes about an hour for him to fall asleep.


主題句的位置可以在段尾：


Doctors are of the opinion that most people cannot live beyond 100 years,but a growing number of scientists believe that the aging process can be controlled.There are more than 12 000 Americans over 100 years old,and their numbers are increasing each year.Dr�盝ames Langley of Chicago claims that,theoretically and under ideal(理想的)conditions,animals,including man,can live six times longer than their normal period of growth.A person′s period of growth lasts about 25 years.If Dr.Langley′s theory is accurate(準(zhǔn)確的), future generations can expect a life span(壽命)of 150 years .


主題句的位置可在段首段尾同時(shí)出現(xiàn)：


Good manners are important in all countries,but ways of expressing good manners are different from country to country .Americans eat with knives and forks(叉)；Japanese eat with chopsticks(筷子).Americans say“Hi”when they meet;Japanese bow.Many American men open doors for women;Japanese men do not.On the surface,it appears that good manners in America are not good manners in Japan,and in a way this is true.But in any country,the only manners that are important are those involving one person′s behavior toward another person.In all countries it is good manners to behave considerately toward others and bad manners not to. It is only the way of behaving politely that differs from country to country .
(以上4段摘自大學(xué)英語精讀課本)


主題句出現(xiàn)在段落首或尾完全由寫作需要而定。一般地說來，寫這樣100多詞的小短文把主題句放在段首更有利于考生扣準(zhǔn)中心思想展開論述。


3.怎樣寫好主題句


主題句在段落中有著舉足輕重的作用。因此寫好主題句是寫好段落的關(guān)鍵。在構(gòu)思主題句時(shí)要注意以下三個(gè)方面：


(1)主題句首先應(yīng)是一個(gè)完整的句子，任何詞組或修飾成分都不能作主題句。如：More burdens,就不是一個(gè)完整的句子。Reading is thought to be a kind of conversation between the reader

and the text，則是一個(gè)比較好的主題句。


(2)主題句不應(yīng)太籠統(tǒng)概括。如：William Shakespeare is great這句話很籠統(tǒng)，對(duì)段落如何展開沒有指導(dǎo)和限定作用，因而不能作主題句。如改為：William Shakespeare wrote several historic plays,則下文就能圍繞莎氏的歷史劇展開論述了。


(3)主題句不能太具體。如：The dictionary is small，句子如果太瑣碎具體就失去進(jìn)一步展開的意義了。


(4)各段的主題句應(yīng)相互照應(yīng)。在以 No Smoking為題的作文中，各段的主題句分別是：


Smoking is harmful.
Smoking does not only harm the smokers but also people around them.
Therefore,smoking is a bad habit.


第二段的主題句用not only，but also連接詞語溝通了上下兩段的內(nèi)容。第三段的Therefore又起了承上啟下的作用，使全篇融為一體。

(二)段落的展開


展開段落的方法有很多種，在這里我們僅介紹幾種常用方法。


1.依據(jù)歸納法或演繹法進(jìn)行論述
依據(jù)歸納法展開段落是指在段落中先引用具體事實(shí)或因由進(jìn)行闡述或論說，進(jìn)而得出結(jié)論。演繹法則是由一般推出特殊情況的結(jié)論。
下面這一段落是用歸納法展開的段落。最后一句是結(jié)論，也是主題句。


And that is exactly what reading a book should be：a conversation between you and the auther.Presumably,he knows more about the subject than you do;naturally,you will have the proper humility as you approach him.But don′t let anybody tell you that a reader is supposed to be solely on the receiving end.Understanding is a two�瞱ay operation;learning doesn′t consist in being an empty receptacle.The learner has to question himself and the teacher.He even has to argue with the teacher,once he understands what the teacher is saying.And marking a book is literally an expression of your differences,or agreements of opinion,with the author.


2.依據(jù)重要性展開段落


依據(jù)思想或事實(shí)或理由的重要性的先后次序進(jìn)行論述，可以從次要至重要，也可以從重要至次重要。下面段落是以次重要至重要的方法進(jìn)行論述的。作者首先指出(醫(yī)生)對(duì)病人撒謊不僅對(duì)醫(yī)生本人不好，也會(huì)傷害同事，進(jìn)而會(huì)有損于整個(gè)醫(yī)療事業(yè)。


Lies also do harm to those who tell them:harm to their integrity and,in the long run,to their credibility.Lies hurt their colleagues as well.The suspicion of deceit undercuts the work of the many doctors who are scrupulously honest with their patiens;it contributes to the spiral of lawsuits and of “defen sive medicine”,and thus it injures,in turn,the entire medical profession.


3.依據(jù)比較和對(duì)比法進(jìn)行論述


一般地說，比較是指對(duì)事物的相同方面進(jìn)行比較；對(duì)比是指對(duì)比事物的差異或不同方面。下面兩段就采用了對(duì)比方法。這兩段將口頭英語與書面英語的不同方面作了比較，兩段的觀點(diǎn)都一一對(duì)應(yīng)，比如：Oral English is imformal while written English is comparatively formal就是一對(duì)觀點(diǎn)的對(duì)比。另外，兩段之間用unlike oral Englsh承接，既讓段落過渡自然，又使對(duì)比強(qiáng)烈。


First of all,oral English is usually considered informal.So no matter how poor one′s language is and how strange and foreign one′s pronunciation is,it seems insignificant if only one can make his audience understood.Secondly,as to the audience,they are only interested in grasping the meaning,not actually mind,or even hardly notice how many grammatical mistakes the speaker makes.Furthermore,oral English is also regarded adaptable.When we cannot express something precisely,we may give the explanation of it instead,or correct the mistakes on the spot.So oral English gives less chances of misunderstanding.


Unlike oral English,written English is comparatively formal.It requires good spelling and perfect grammar.Poor spelling and too many grammatical mistakes will put readers in a puzzling difficulty.They would be confused about what writers are getting at.In addition,once the words are printed on the paper and handed to whoever the person concerned,writers can no longer make any changes.To avoid this,one has to pay much attention to spelling,practise grammer and write clearly—constructed paragraphs.As a result it will take longer time and much more efforts to communicate in written English than in oral English.


4.依據(jù)時(shí)間的先后進(jìn)行論述


依據(jù)時(shí)間的先后次序展開段落，就是完全按照事物實(shí)際發(fā)展的時(shí)間先后進(jìn)行論述。如：下面兩段就是以時(shí)間為序介紹鹿的生長過程。隨著夏季一天天過去，又隨著秋去冬來，鹿的新陳代謝也隨著季節(jié)的推移而變化。


As the summer progresses and the fawns grow,they become less dependent on their mother′s milk and more dependent on growing plants as food sources.The adult males spend the summer growing antlers and getting fat.Both males and females continue to eat high quality food in the fall in order to deposit body fat for the winter.In the case of does and fawns,a great deal of energy is expended either in milk production or in growing,and fat is not accumulated as quickly as it is in full grown males.Fat reserves are like bank accounts to be drawn on in the winter when food supplies are limited and sometimes difficult to reach because of deep snow.
As fall turns into winter,other changes take place.Fawns lose their spotted coat.Hair on all the deer becomes darker and thicker.The change in the hair coats is usually complete by September and maximum hair depths are reached by November or December when winter becomes cold.


5.依據(jù)空間順序展開段落


依據(jù)空間的次序進(jìn)行論述應(yīng)是有序地由遠(yuǎn)至近或由近至遠(yuǎn)，由上至下或由下至上對(duì)事物進(jìn)行描寫。下面的例子描寫了一幅美麗寧靜的夜景。作者先描寫空中的月亮，再隨灑向大地的月光寫到湖四周隨風(fēng)搖曳的樹枝，又由青蛙的叫聲把讀者引到了湖的中央，最后結(jié)尾講：這是一個(gè)多么迷人的夜晚。這個(gè)段落文字簡潔流暢，有序地按空間順序由上寫到下，由外寫到里。讀者可在平時(shí)的練習(xí)中注意模仿。


It is a beautiful and quiet night.The moon is like a disc hanging on the dark sky,which casts its light on everything.Around the lake are some trees,their slender leaves billowing in the gentle wind.There must be some frogs in the middle of the lake,whose endless singing can be heard clearly.What an attractive night!

(三)寫好結(jié)尾句


段落結(jié)尾或文章的結(jié)尾的方法很多，比如在文章的結(jié)論段提出問題，讓讀者自己去解答；引用諺語或名人名言進(jìn)一步印證作者的觀點(diǎn)；或?qū)⑶懊嫠�講的內(nèi)容重點(diǎn)摘述等。在這里僅介紹幾種適合寫短文結(jié)尾的常用方法。


1.回答段落主題句中暗示的問題


如下面段落的第一句作為主題句闡明了做摘要的全過程顯示(一個(gè)人)的決策能力。在文章的結(jié)尾作者以答復(fù)的口氣作結(jié)論說：根據(jù)你在做筆記時(shí)所投入的時(shí)間和精力，你做摘要的效率會(huì)得到相應(yīng)的提高。


The whole process of summarizing implies an ability to make decisions.You have to decide what the author′s plan is,how the material has been organized,what the key ideas are,and what material is used merely as example.You will not find the technique of summarizing easy at first because it requires so many decisions.But your efficiency in making summaries,as well as your general reading efficiency,will increase in proportion to the time and effort you spend on perfecting your notetaking technique.


2.呼應(yīng)主題句中的關(guān)鍵詞，使用關(guān)鍵詞的同義詞重申段落的中心思想


下面段落的第一句為主題句，其關(guān)鍵詞是famous。在結(jié)尾句中可使用它的同義詞well�瞜nown作結(jié)論。


Our university is one of the most famous universities in China.It is an old university whose origins can be traced back to 1938,when it was first built up in Yanan.Now,it is located in the northwest of Beijing.As a university of liberal arts,it has 25 departments,more than 50 majors,about 7 000 students and 4 000 teachers.It also plays a leading role in social science.In short,our university is well�瞜nown both at home and abroad.


3.將段落中所論述的內(nèi)容以摘要的方式進(jìn)行總結(jié)


下面段落闡述了三方面的內(nèi)容：environment,goods和service,可以用連接詞not only…but also將三方面概括為一句作為結(jié)論句。


Walking into those luxury shopping centers,people will be fascinated by the beautiful decorations,graceful environment and elegant goods.There are various things for people to select:fashionable clothes,lovely stationery or precious jewelries.Besides people will be warmly greeted by salesmen and women who will offer a satisfactory service.In a word,such shopping centers provide not only pleasant environment,abundant goods but also excellent service.


4.以提問的方式結(jié)束段落


下面的段落講述吃早飯的重要性，結(jié)尾句作者設(shè)問：如果不吃早飯或湊合吃一口會(huì)怎么樣?這樣的結(jié)尾為下一段不吃早飯的危害作了鋪墊。


Many health experts consider breakfast to be the most important meal of the day.If we eat a good breakfast,we′ll have the energy and nutrients we need to begin our working day vigorously.It is especially true if one′s work involves mental activity.However,what happens if people skip breakfast or substitute a simple one for a high qualified meal?


5.使用過渡詞給文章或段落作結(jié)論


如：In brief,tourism,according to my opinion,should not be encouraged.這里in brief起總結(jié)作用。Certaily,close cooperation will make the world a better place.這里的certainly發(fā)揮了強(qiáng)調(diào)及過渡作用。


以上兩種方法簡單易學(xué)，注意在實(shí)踐中應(yīng)用。


三、圖表作文

圖表作文與寫議論文和說明文的寫作方法大致相同，唯一的差異就是如何利用濃縮在圖表中的信息闡明圖中各種數(shù)據(jù)和信息所反映的問題。因此考生在寫此類作文時(shí)只有在看懂圖表的基礎(chǔ)上才能動(dòng)筆寫。如果不能全部領(lǐng)會(huì)圖中信息，在寫作中就會(huì)出現(xiàn)這樣或那樣的問題。因此考生在閱讀圖表時(shí)

應(yīng)注意以下兩點(diǎn)：


第一，掌握?qǐng)D表上提供的信息及每一欄上面的小標(biāo)題的標(biāo)注，由此弄清設(shè)計(jì)者想通過圖表反映出的信息、問題或現(xiàn)象。


第二，在掌握全部信息的基礎(chǔ)上，著手分析這些信息和表上的具體數(shù)字。通過分析與對(duì)比，抓住問題，便可以開拓思路，構(gòu)思文章的布局、段落的劃分及上下文的連貫等。


段落的劃分可根據(jù)內(nèi)容而定。一般第一段應(yīng)對(duì)圖表做一簡要的概述，點(diǎn)出所要涉及的問題；中間段落應(yīng)對(duì)圖表的重要問題進(jìn)行分析；結(jié)尾段對(duì)全文做一小結(jié)。


請(qǐng)看下面圖表：


FOODYEAR
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990

Grain
49%
47%
46.5%
45%
45%

Milk
10%
11%
11%
12%
13%

Meat
17%
20%
22.5%
23%
21%

Fruit and Vege tables
24%
22%
20%
20%
21%

Total
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%



審題：


這張圖表介紹了1986年～1990年人們食品結(jié)構(gòu)發(fā)生的變化。食品包括四大類：糧、奶、肉及水果蔬菜。從圖表上看，糧食消費(fèi)量在逐年下降，奶和肉的消費(fèi)量在上升，可見人民生活水平提高了。蔬菜水果消費(fèi)量下降的原因可否歸結(jié)為物價(jià)上揚(yáng)問題。根據(jù)上述分析我們可以將文章分為3～5段。


According to the above table,we can see that some changes have taken place in people′s diet since 1986,which clearly indicates the improvement of people′s living standard.
One of the big changes is the decrease of grain consumption with 49 percent in 1986 and 45 percent in 1990.On people′s dinner tables the traditional dominant food—grain has given some way to milk and meat which were seldom seen on dinner tables before.Since the economic reform in 1978,various kinds of food have become popular in Chinese families.


However,there is a steady reduction of fruit and vegetables with 24 percent in 1986 and a three point drop by 1990.But this is not the main trend.As the living standard of the Chinese people is rising,we look forward to further changes in people′s diet.The proportion of fruit and vegetables as well as milk and meat will definitely increase in the coming yesrs.


四、寫摘要

摘要寫作是一種實(shí)用的寫作技能。寫摘要就是要用簡潔的語言概述一個(gè)問題、事件或觀點(diǎn)。它的用處十分廣泛，在寫論文、報(bào)告、總結(jié)或演講稿時(shí)都需要這一技能。


摘要的特點(diǎn)是簡明扼要，因此寫摘要時(shí)要對(duì)全文進(jìn)行選擇取舍，抓住重點(diǎn)，突出新觀點(diǎn)，強(qiáng)調(diào)文章的目的和主要結(jié)論。


要寫好摘要，應(yīng)注意以下三方面：


第一，要理解原文，了解原文的總體結(jié)構(gòu)和主導(dǎo)思想以及作者的意圖。
第二，要確認(rèn)每一段的主題句及重要細(xì)節(jié)。
最后，要注意全文的結(jié)尾，因?yàn)樽髡叱Ｔ诮Y(jié)尾歸納總結(jié)全文或重申主題。


選擇取舍也是寫好摘要的關(guān)鍵。一般的細(xì)節(jié)，冗長的說明，修飾成分等可刪節(jié)或簡化。摘要不僅要簡潔，還應(yīng)(和其他文章一樣)完整流暢。


原文：


The whole process of summarizing implies an ability to make decisions.You have to decide what the author′s plan is,how the material has been organized,what the key ideas are,and what material is used merely as example.You will not find the technique of summarizing easy at first because it requires so many decisions.But your efficiency in making summaries,as well as your general reading efficiency,will increase in proportion to the time and effort you spend on perfecting your notetaking technique.


第一段的中心思想指出寫摘要的過程是檢查一個(gè)人的閱讀理解水平的過程。它包括對(duì)文章總體結(jié)構(gòu)的掌握，對(duì)主題思想的理解。(注意：本文的重點(diǎn)是寫摘要，因此本段涉及的“決策能力”可以不提。)


Your final summary should reflect clearly and accurately what the author has said.An inaccurate summary may be worse than no summary at all.An effective method of testing the quality of your summary is to set it aside for a month or two and then reread it.If it still recalls the essential information for you and seems to express the material in a clear and exact manner,you have done a good job.If it does not,make another attempt.This time you will do a better job.This method,incidentally,may well be applied to other types of writing.Many young writers have been advised to put their material aside for a while.If a piece of writing seems as good a year or two later as the day they finished it,they can begin to feel that it will stand the test of time.The same thing,of course,applies to what someone else has written and you have read.If you think a book you read several years ago was the best you have known,reread it.Don′t be surprised if you find yourself sadly disappointed.


第二段的主要觀點(diǎn)是摘要應(yīng)簡潔準(zhǔn)確。如果寫得不好，就不能接受時(shí)間的考驗(yàn)。段中列舉幾個(gè)事例都是為了說明上述觀點(diǎn)，寫摘要時(shí)可刪去。


Good summaries serve many purposes.Everyone,from professional to houseperson,needs and uses them.Doctors may have to summarize a report of their findings in a particular case for a medical board.They will have to read the summaries of other doctors and summaries of the latest medical research in their field.Lawyers need to prepare a summary,or brief,of their case before they present it in court.Their summary usually takes the form of a sentence outline,and many an early career is hurt by an inability to present a clear and accurate brief.A junior executive may write a summary of a long report for the president of the company.Electrical engineers will summarize their findings to formulate their plans.A student prepares summaries for use in a term paper.


第三段的中心思想表達(dá)了寫摘要的廣泛用途。


摘要：


The ability to write summaries reflects one′s reading comprehension level.If one has a better understanding of the structure of an article and a better grasp of the main idea,he can write the summary efficiently.Moreover,a summary,if accurate and well�瞱ritten,can stand the test of time.Many professions require their staff to possess the ability of writing summaries such as doctors,lawyers,junior executives and students.


五、常用過渡詞和句型

過渡詞在文章中發(fā)揮著連接上下文的作用，學(xué)會(huì)恰當(dāng)?shù)剡\(yùn)用過渡詞會(huì)使文章連貫、流暢。本節(jié)提供的過渡詞都是最基本的，考生在時(shí)間緊、工作繁忙的情況下，可根據(jù)自己的喜好，掌握各類中的二至三個(gè)用法即可。

1.常用于文章開始的過渡詞語和句子


(1)To begin with首先


例：To begin with,smoking should be banned in public areas.“首先，公共場所禁止吸煙。”


(2)Generaby speaking一般地說，總體上說


例：Generally speaking,it is the best policy to spend more money on libraries.“總的說來，加大圖書館的投資是良策�！�


(3)First of all第一，首先


例：First of all,many people in remote areas still live in poverty.“第一，居住在邊遠(yuǎn)地區(qū)的許多人仍生活在貧困之中�！�


(4)With(the development/progress/growth)of(economy/society)…隨著(經(jīng)濟(jì)、社會(huì))的(發(fā)展、進(jìn)步、增長)…


例：With the development of society,women′s role has become more important than ever before in daily life.“隨著社會(huì)的發(fā)展，婦女在社會(huì)生活中比以往發(fā)揮著更加重要的作用。”


(5)Recently近來


例：Recently，the problem(conflict,production)of grain shortage has become the world focus.“近來糧食短缺問題已成為全球關(guān)注的焦點(diǎn)。”

2.常用于文章結(jié)尾的過渡詞和句子


(1)In conclusion最后，在結(jié)束時(shí)


例：In conclusion,the international agreement should be made to prevent the world from war.“最后，應(yīng)達(dá)成國際協(xié)定使世界避免戰(zhàn)爭�！�


(2)In brief簡言之


例：In brief,family planning is of vital importance in China.“簡言之，計(jì)劃生育對(duì)中國具有重要意義�！�


(3)In a word總之


例：In a word,without mutual understanding,true friendship does not exist.“總之，沒有相互理解，真正的友誼是不存在的�！�


(4)It is high time that…到…時(shí)候了


例：It is high time that the issue were to be solved so as to promote the economic development.“為了促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展到該解決問題的時(shí)候了�！�


(5)It is only when…that…只有當(dāng)…才…


例：It is only when people become the masters of the country that science can serve the people.“只有當(dāng)人民成為國家的主人，科學(xué)才能為人民服務(wù)�！�

3.常用于表示先后次序的過渡詞語及句子


(1)first,second,third…第一，第二，第三


例：First,she had studied chemistry during her sophomore and junior years.Second,she never missed a class.Third,she performed every required experiment in all her chemistry courses.Fourth,she always worked hard.Her classmates were sure that she would win top award in Chemistry during her senior year at the university.“首先，她在一二年級(jí)時(shí)就選修了化學(xué)課程。其次，她從不誤課。再有，她認(rèn)真完成每一次化學(xué)試驗(yàn)。還有，她學(xué)習(xí)非�？炭�。因而同學(xué)們確信她在高年級(jí)時(shí)會(huì)獲得學(xué)校化學(xué)大獎(jiǎng)。”


(2)To begin with…,moreover…,finally…，首先…，此外…，最后…


例：There are a few reasons for his decision of studying law.To begin with,he is very interested in social affairs and it seems the best way to enable him to engage in these activities.Moreover,his father is a lawyer.He has always encouraged him to do something similar.Finally,he is sure he can get a job after graduation.“他決定學(xué)法律有幾方面的原因：首先，他對(duì)社會(huì)事物感興趣，學(xué)習(xí)法律有助于他參與這些活動(dòng)。此外，他父親是個(gè)律師，一直鼓勵(lì)他從事同樣的職業(yè)。最后，他確信畢業(yè)后能找到工作�！�


(3)Meanwhile同時(shí)


例：Meanwhile,the better skills and knowledge children possess,the more opportunities they will be ensured.“同時(shí)，孩子們的技藝與知識(shí)掌握得越好，今后的機(jī)會(huì)就越多�！�


(4)since then自此之后


例：Since then,the Olympics turned out to be an instrument of peace and freedom for small nations.“自此之后，奧林匹克運(yùn)動(dòng)成為小國爭取和平和自由的工具�！�


(5)Therefore因而


例：Therefore,if this is included in good education that parents are seeking now,their children will be definitely ensured a bright future.“因而，如果父母們?cè)谄錇楹⒆觽儗で蟮牧己媒逃�中加入這一點(diǎn)，他們的子女肯定會(huì)有一個(gè)光輝燦爛的未來�！�

4.常用于表示因果關(guān)系及分析原因的過渡詞語與句子


(1)As a result由于…結(jié)果


例：Her performance in college was excellent.As a result,she has got a satisfactory job.“由于她在大學(xué)成績優(yōu)異，她找到一份令人滿意的工作。”


(2)Due to由于


例：My trip to Guang Zhou and Shen Zhen has to be cancelled due to the financial problem.“由于財(cái)務(wù)問題，我去廣州和深圳的旅行取消了�！�


(3)consequently結(jié)果，因此


例：The government was unwilling to risk a conflict with that neibouring country,and consequently,promised to sign the treaty.“該國政府不愿冒險(xiǎn)與鄰國發(fā)生沖突，因此答應(yīng)簽署條約�！�


(4)One may criticise……for……，but the real cause of…lies deeper人們可以因?yàn)椤�批評(píng)…，但是…的真正原因在更深層次


例：One may criticise the school authorities for the fire accident,but the real reason of the accident lies deeper.“人們可以就火災(zāi)事故批評(píng)校領(lǐng)導(dǎo)，但事故還有更深的原因�！�


(5)Among…reasons,one should be emphasized that…在眾多的原因中，其中一點(diǎn)給予強(qiáng)調(diào)…


例：Among the most important reasons,one reason should be emphasized that large pieces of cultivated land have been occupied,which results in the grain shortage.“在許多重要的原因中，其中一點(diǎn)應(yīng)強(qiáng)調(diào)的是造成糧食減產(chǎn)是因?yàn)榇罅康目筛�地被占用�！?br />
5.常用于比較和對(duì)比的過渡詞


(1)unlike…與…不同


例：Unlike oral English,written English is comparatively formal.“與口頭英語不同，筆頭英語比較正規(guī)�！�


(2)In contrast…與之相比


例：In contrast with Tom,Mario seldom studies harder.“與湯姆比，瑪里奧很少努力學(xué)習(xí)�！�


(3)On the other hand…另一方面


例：The life expectancy in developing countries has increased during the past thirty years.On the other hand,the infant mortality has decreased from twenty percent to ten percent in the same period.“發(fā)展中國家的期望壽命在過去的30年間都增長了。另一方面嬰兒死亡率同期由20%下降到10%。”


(4)Likewise同樣


例：Plenty of food must be packed for the journey；likewise,warm clothes will also be needed.“要帶上旅行中吃的食品，同樣也需要帶上御寒保暖的衣服�！�


(5)similarly同樣


例：If only one can make his audience understood,it seems insignificant if one makes some mistakes in his oral English;similarly,as to the audience,they are only interested in grasping the meaning,not actually mind or even hardly notice the speakers mistakes.“只要能使聽眾聽明白，在口頭英語中出一些錯(cuò)誤是無關(guān)緊要的，同樣作為聽眾也只對(duì)講話者的意思感興趣，根本不介意或幾乎注意不到講話者所犯的口語錯(cuò)誤�！�


六、對(duì)考生的幾點(diǎn)建議

以下幾方面是考生在復(fù)習(xí)準(zhǔn)備期間和考試時(shí)應(yīng)特別注意的：

(一)考前準(zhǔn)備
考生在考前應(yīng)寫幾篇短文，按照本書提供的練習(xí)，先找自己感興趣的題目寫。對(duì)一些從沒寫過英語作文的考生來說，要克服畏難情緒，寫第一篇作文時(shí)，考生有可能出現(xiàn)較多較嚴(yán)重的錯(cuò)誤，但不要緊，因?yàn)橹挥羞~出第一步，才能取得更大的進(jìn)步，否則會(huì)永遠(yuǎn)停留在不會(huì)寫的水平上。建議考生自己動(dòng)筆，寫前不要看范文，可以參考一下寫作提示，寫完后再與范文對(duì)照。另外，不要死記硬背范文，考生應(yīng)從范文中找出自己喜好和需要的句型或詞匯記憶，因?yàn)樽魑臎]有唯一的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)答案，只要寫得好就會(huì)得高分。

(二)避免寫錯(cuò)句
作文要表達(dá)清楚，錯(cuò)句、語病太多肯定影響表達(dá)思想。因而考生在寫作時(shí)一定要首先做到盡可能地減少錯(cuò)誤，在此基礎(chǔ)上才可以考慮有一些句式的變化。如果為了追求句式的變化而出現(xiàn)一些本來可以避免的錯(cuò)誤，同樣會(huì)影響成績。同時(shí)，寫作時(shí)還應(yīng)避開自己不會(huì)用英文表達(dá)的思想，使用自己有把握的句型和詞匯，這樣才能更好地避免錯(cuò)誤。

(三)篇幅適中
由于寫作的時(shí)間只有30分鐘，篇幅要求100詞左右，因此考生在確定段落的主題句之后，只要圍繞段落的中心思想寫三至五句，把意思表達(dá)清楚即可。一般情況下，一篇三段文的短篇，各段的長度應(yīng)相差不多，不應(yīng)在前二段中花太多的時(shí)間，而后一段只匆匆寫了一句，這樣做也會(huì)影響成績。

(四)修改定稿
修改定稿是考生在考場應(yīng)試時(shí)決不能缺少的一步。考生在30分鐘的寫作考試中應(yīng)留出2至3分鐘，把自己的作文通讀一遍，檢查錯(cuò)句及語病。相當(dāng)多的考生是能分辨錯(cuò)誤的，只是寫時(shí)未加注意，只要認(rèn)真檢查，許多常見錯(cuò)誤如主謂一致問題、大小寫問題、拼寫及標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號(hào)等都是可以自己更正的。如果考生在平時(shí)的寫作訓(xùn)練中抓住這一環(huán)節(jié)養(yǎng)成習(xí)慣，正式考試時(shí)就不會(huì)忽視修改定稿了。